King Arthur in Welsh Literature

In 1136, or thereabouts, Geoffrey of Monmouth completed work on a book entitled The History of the Kings of Britain. It was, by medieval standards, a blockbuster. Over two hundred manuscripts survive. That doesn’t sound like a lot, but it can be compared to the eighty-odd of The Canterbury Tales and the fifty-odd of Piers Plowman.

Geoffrey told a marvelous story about a boy king who conquers all of Europe before being betrayed by his nephew and wife and perishing in a massive final battle. Many of the elements that we today recognise as uniquely Arthurian are first mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth: the lust of Uther Pendragon, Arthur’s father, for the lovely Igraine of Cornwall; the treachery of Mordred; the infidelity of Guinevere; and Arthur’s journey to Avalon, to be healed of his wounds.

Modern historians believe, as most medieval historians did not, that Geoffrey’s account is overwhelmingly fictitious; and yet he did not invent it out of thin air.

In the span of time between the historical Arthur, early in the sixth century, and Geoffrey of Monmouth, in the middle of the twelfth, came a series of stories, mostly oral, and mostly of a fantastic nature, dealing with the figure of Arthur. In these stories, he is not a Norman conqueror, like in Geoffrey; nor is he a Celtic freedom fighter, as the historical Arthur may have been. He is something much more strange.

Of course, he wasn’t strange to the Welsh bards who composed the stories, but the stories seem so remote to us in the twenty-first century that, for us, they are wreathed in the same kind of mystery that characterizes the best fantasy novels of, say, J. R. R. Tolkien or C. S. Lewis. They are full of half-revealed episodes, hints of adventurous deeds, characters with marvelous powers, sorcerers and witches, fabulous beasts and magical swords.

The most impressive of these stories is the tale "How Culhwch Won Olwen." This story tells of a youthful hero, Culhwch (pronounced KEEL-hooch, with the ch pronounced as in Bach or loch) who falls into enchanted love with Olwen, daughter of Chief Giant Ysbaddaden. In order to win her hand, he must accomplish a fabulous series of deeds, for which he enlists the assistance of Arthur and all his court. The manuscript that preserves "Culhwch and Olwen" is a relatively recent one, but the author drew on far earlier sources, and the tone and style are reminiscent of Irish myth rather than the French romances that followed the publication of Geoffrey’s book.

Mention should next be made of the poem "The Spoils of Annwn." This is the story of how Arthur led an expedition to Annwn, the Celtic underworld, in order to win the Cauldron of Plenty which, by many turns of literary evolution, eventually became the Holy Grail. This story is exceedingly strange, however. The Welsh bards seemed to have assumed their audience to be familiar with stories that have since disappeared. I have included a few of the analogues of "Preiddeu Annwn," or possible other versions of episodes, that can help with this along with the poem itself. Texts that are also analogous, but are not on this website, include the Mabinogion tales "Branwen, Daughter of Llyr" and "Manawydan, Son of Llyr," and an episode in "Culhwch and Olwen."

Similar to "The Spoils of Annwn" are the Triads. These were really not much more than lists—lists of three things. They acted as mnemonic devices to remind bards of interesting stories. They are therefore not stories in their own right, but like "The Spoils of Annwn," they hint at stories.

Another early poem is "Pa gur." This is a dialogue between Arthur and Glewlwyd Mighty-Grasp, a porter who will only let him into a castle if he will list his companions. He does so, adding an account of their fantastic deeds. This poem is possibly connected with "How Culhwch Won Olwen" and "The Spoils of Annwn." Unfortunately, the manuscript we possess is incomplete, so we never find out how it finishes, nor whether Glewlwyd is a friend or foe, nor whether Arthur is allowed to enter the hall.

There are also a number of allusions to Arthur in Welsh poetry that isn't itself about Arthur: Y Gododdin, an early Welsh heroic poem. He is mentioned again in a poem about Gereint, a hero of Devon in southern England. Arthur is seen as Gereint’s ally in a battle that crushes a Saxon attack. Finally, we have two stanzas from the poem "The Stanzas on the Grave," which hint at the mystery surrounding Arthur’s death.

Literature like this takes a little patience, because it can be completely obscure at first; but it can also be very exhilarating. We have to put a great deal into reading these poems. You can’t read them passively, but take an active role in the dialogue between author and reader. Ultimately, however, that is a very rewarding way to enjoy stories.